1500-1700
Impact of Scientific Thinking, Renaissance, and
Enlightenment Thinkers
1500:
Leonardo da Vinci demonstrates the importance of observation
and experimentation in learning.
1620:
Francis Bacon declares that the goal of
scientific effort is to equip the intellect for the use of reason.
Sense
realist philosophy claims environment must be rich in objects to test
conceptions against. Locke (1632-1704) and Descartes (1596-1650)
were also realists.
1700-1900
Philosophical movement towards Progressive education
Our European Heritage, Colonial Influence,
and the American Revolution
The beginnings
of our educational system reflect many European patterns, but were also
infused with our own unique modifications.
French
and Spanish colonialists viewed schools as religious as well as educational
institutions that copied European institutions as much as was possible
in the new world. British colonialists had private schools that were
more practical in nature than their British counterparts, offering classes
in surveying, navigating, and bookkeeping. Apprenticeships and tutorial
systems were also common as students could leave their schooling with a
practical skill. Such colonial schools represented the value systems
of idealism and classical realism in the form of stability, tradition,
authority, and discipline.
Before
the American Revolution, the rising tide of democracy began to threaten
the dual system of education whereby the elite enjoyed good schools and
the masses were still largely left out. The idea of free, compulsory,
universal education began to materialize and religious, denominational
schools were weakened by the separation of church and state. During
this time Thomas Jefferson provided the ideology for extending education
to all citizens. He argued that no democratic society was safe without
an educated population. Unfortunately, education was still viewed as an
effort at disciplining children.
1812-1865
The period of
time between 1812 and the Civil War was transitional as Horace Mann, James
Carter and Henry Barnard were the first to develop what would become our
free, public school system supported by the state. The rise of Jacksonian
Democracy, nationalism, the Industrial Revolution, westward expansion,
immigration and population growth all helped the cause of universal education.
During this time educational opportunities for women were increased, there
was a rebirth in the development of elementary and common schools, the
birth of the high school, and an increase in the number of universities
and kindergartens. Unfortunately, before 1861, little was done to
help in the education of minority children because missionary teachers
often misunderstood the cultures and attitudes of Native American populations.
1865-1918
The time between
the Civil War and World War I was the time for the development of the American
school system. The public school ideal became that public school
should be free for all. The population explosion and expansion of the United
States required the building of new schools and the development of a different
system.
1798:
Thomas Jefferson claims sciences are the “keys to the
treasures of nature…hands must be trained to use them wisely.”
1847:
James Wilkinson, a member of the Royale College of
Surgeons of London delivered his lecture entitled “Science for All.”
1859:
British philosopher Herbert Spencer declared that science
education should “have some bearing on life.”
1889:
Pavlov presents his theory of Classical Conditioning that leads to
popular behaviorism in the early part of the 20th century.
1900-Present
Progressives, Behaviorists, and Science
Teaching Reform
1901:
Dewey publishes Psychology and How We Think describing
his Functional Theories.
1903:
Thorndike applies his Law of Effect to human behavior.
Strong behavioral responses for rewards but not for punishment.
1910: Gestalt Psychology influences the Progressive Movement.
1913:
Thorndike's
Connectionism or Learning = Stimulus - Response
became the leading educational psychology.
1918:
The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education is published.
It lists the principles of American education as health, command of
fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation,
citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. It supported
the concept of general education and the production of good citizens.
1922:
Dewey publishes Human Nature and Conduct describing the
interaction of the individual and his environment.
1929:
Piaget presents
his learning theory of genetic
epistomology.
Learning is the construction of meaning.
1930: Guthrie's contiguity theory of learning is presented
1932:
Progressive Education Association appoints a committee
to explore "the needs of young people in the democratic society
of America today." After 6 years they develop goals for science
teaching that focus on science and social progress, cultural patterns,
and interpersonal relationships.
1937:
Science in General Education (Commission on Secondary
School Curriculum) illustrated the relationship between science
teaching and general education.
Progressive Era:
Ignored academic
disciplines in favor
child-centered
approach.
1938:
Skinner publishes Behavior of Organisms that repopularizes
behaviorist classroom models.
1939-1945:
World War II brings a more funtional view of science
education.
WWII brings an
age dominated by
science, technology
and democracy.
1944:
The report Education for All American Youth restates
perspectives of Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education
and declares "no aristocracy of 'subjects'" including science.
1945:
General Education in a Free Society report emphasizes
general education that integrates broad elements from
all modes of thought. Unfortunately, this idea has not been realized
in many programs.
Science: The Endless Frontier calls for the establishment of the
National Science Foundation and emphasizes the relationship of
the NSF to science education reform. It also established the
connection between science education and the emergence of
new, talented scientists and engineers.
The late 1940s brought
a functional or "life
adjustment" approach
to science instruction.
1947:
Science Education in American Schools declared science
subjects should be taught so they are functional and enable
students to construct meanings at higher and higher levels.
1954:
Supreme Court Rules on the Brown vs. Board of
Education case in support of racial equality in
educational opportunity.
1957:
Soviet union launched Sputnik I. Attention turned away
from functional schooling for all towards science and
mathmatics, foreign languages and the search for high
achievers in those fields. It accelerated public funding
and support for science education.
1958:
Paul DeHart Hurd first uses the term scientific literacy as
a major theme for science education in his article Science
Literacy: Its Meaning for American Schools. He defined
scientific literacy as a conceptual understanding of science and
its applications to social experiences.
Late 1950s:
Sputnik launch spurs
American educational
reform. The term
scientific literacy
is first used.
1959:
Conant publishes The American High School Today,
Slums and Suburbs (1961), and Shaping Educational
Policy (1964) claiming that the goal of education is both
social and intellectual. He was a proponent of tracking
students sed on their abilities.
President Eisenhower forms the President's Science Advisory
Committee to determine how to use knowledge of science and
engineering to "advance social and cultural life."
1960:
Fitzpatrick edits Policies for Science Education in which the term
scientific literacy is used by several contributors.
Kusch publishes Educating for Scientific Literacy in Physics
in which he illustrates the connection between scientific
understanding and good citizenship.
1962:
Philip Johnson's Goals of Science Education claims scientific
literacy is more than the memorization of scientific facts.
Early 1960s:
Science education reformers
begin to use the term
scientific literacy as a
goal for science education.
Vygotsky publishes
Thought
and Language that explores
social development theories of learning.
1963:
Alma Whittlin outlines requirements for scientific literacy in the
journal Science Education where she integrates theories in
developmental psychology and curriculum development in science.
Sylvia Ashton-Warner publishes Teacher in which she expresses
concern with common meanings of equality and authority in education.
1964:
Theory in Action is published by the Curriculum Commitee of the
NSTA. They assert that "science teaching must result in scientifically
literate citizens." Conceptual schemes and processes of science are
the primary basis for curriculum design.
Mid-1960s:
Education began
to address larger
larger social problems
while recognizing
academic disciplines
within general education
Clearer definitions of
scientific literacy
develop.
1966:
Bruner publishes Toward a Theory of Instruction where
he introduces Constructivist
Learning Theory.
1969:
Rodgers publishes Freedom
to Learn stating that meaningful
learning must be based in experience.
Frere publishes The Pedagogy of the Oppressed exposing biases
that are inherent in curriculum.
1970:
Silberman publishes Crisis in the Classroom as a critique
of the "mindlessness" of American education. Why are
students doing what they are doing?
Early 1970s:
Appearance of
national reports on
education with a crisis
oriented tone.
National Science Foundation Advisory
Committee for Science
Education recommend emphasis should be placed on scientific
literacy for individuals who do not expect to become scientists
and technologists.
Scandura develops Structural Learning Theory.
1973:
National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education
publishes The Reform of Secodary Education.
1976:
Phi Delta Kappa publishes The Education of Adolescents
emphasizing the transition from school to adulthood in the
community.
Mid-1970s:
Science programs
introduced to aid
victory in the
Cold War.
Environmental issues
spurred need for
better science
education programs, but
increased conservatism
stymied implementation
of reform initiatives.
1977:
Sternberg publishes Intelligence, Information Processing,
and Analogical Reasoning, informing a
Triarchic
Learning Theory.
1982:
Gardner publishes Art, Mind and Brain in which he
introduces his Multiple
Intelligences Learning Theory.
1983:
National Commission on Excellence in Education publishes
A Nation at Risk stating "the educational foundations of our
society are being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity."
It emphasized a return to the basics as a solution.
1980s: A Nation at Risk
Various reports question
the effectiveness of the
present science
education system.
Ernest Boyer publishes High School
in which suggested a 2
year science progam for all students.
1988:
NRC report Improving Indicators of the Quality of Science
and Mathmatics Education in Grades K-12 developed scientific
literacy as conceptually understanding: scientific worldview, scientific
enterprise, scientific habits of mind, and science and human affairs.
Late 1980s:
Clear definitions develop
for scientific literacy
that lead to reform
efforts of the 1990s.
1989:
Science for All Americans is published. It set the stage for
the
idea of general, functional scientific literacy for all.
1990:
President George Bush and the governors of all 50 states
adopt six comprehensive goals for education to be met by
the year 2000.
Goal 1: All American children will start school prepared
to learn.
Goal 2: High school graduation rates will increase by 90%.
Goal 3: American students will leave grades 4, 8, and 12 with
demonstrated competency in specific subjects.
Goal 4: U.S. students will be first in the world in mathmatics and
science achievement.
Goal 5: Every adult American will be literate, be able to compete
in
a global economy, and be a responsible citizen.
Goal 6: Every American school will provide a safe
learning environment.
1991:
President Bush releases America 2000, a long-term strategy
for achieving the six educational goals and a framework for
science education reform.
1990s:
Drive towards scientific
literacy for all students,
standards, and systemic
reform.
1993:
American Association for the Advancement of Science publishes
Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy.
1996:
National Research Council publishes National Science Education
Standards. They include standards on instruction, assessment,
professional development, and curriculum.